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Carbohydrate Polyhydroxy aldehyde and ketone and their derivative. Carbohydrates are composed of carbon hydrogen and oxygen possessing a common empirical formula  Occurance carbohydrate are most abundant of all biochemical compound and constitutes more than 50% of total biochemical matter.  they are widely distributed in plant, animal and microbes. Synthesized in green plant and algae from water and CO2 using solar energy. Physiological role and biological importance The carbohydrate have many function in the living organisms Chief source of energy Reserve or storage form of energy in plant (starch, inulin) and animals(glycogen) Structural element in plant cell wall (cellulose), exoskelton of some insect and crustacea (chitin), cell wall of certain microorganism (peptidoglycans), skin and connective tissue of animal (mucopolysaccharides) Important component of nucleic acid, co-enzyme and flavoprotein (some example Ribose) They involve in cell recognition, contact inhibition and also ha

Plant hormones Hormones Hormones are non nutrient chemical which act as a intercellular messengers and are produce in trace amounts. Plant hormones are: Auxin Gibberellins Cytokinins Ethylene Abscisic acid Auxin Auxin term is derived from Greek word 'auxein' which means to grow. F.w.went Discovery of auxin   coined the term auxin. Isolated auxin from tips of coleoptiles of oat seedlings. Bioassay of auxin(Avena curvature test) Kogl and Haagensmit First time isolated auxin from human urine. Precursor of auxin is tryptophan. Zn is also necessary for biosynthesis of auxin. Natural auxin Indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) Indole 3butyric acid (IBA) Synthetic auxin Artificially synthesise Example:- naphthalene acetic acid (NAA) 2,4-D(2,4-Dichlorophenoxy acetic acid) IPA(indole propionic acid) Natural and synthetic auxin have been used extensively in agriculture and horticulture practice. Physiological effect and application of auxin. Apical dominance:- Higher plant growing apical bud inhibi

Mineral nutrition What is minerals? naturally occurring inorganic solid that has a definite chemical composition, and an ordered internal structure. What is nutrition? Nutrition is a process of taking food and using it growth ,repair , reproduction and maintenance of body. The word nutrient come from the Latin word which means feed Essential of mineral elements Most of the mineral present in soil can enter through the root. Some plant species accumulate selenium some other gold. While some plants growing near nuclear test site take up radioactive strontium. Criteria for essentiality. element must be absolute necessary for supporting normal growth and reproduction, absence of element the plant do not complete their life cycle or falls seeds. requirement of element must be specific and not replaceable by another element. Deficiency of  any element cannot be met by supplying some other element. Element must be directly involved in metabolism of plant. the element are further divided into

Photosynthesis Photosynthesis is a process in which make their own food from their light and release oxygen. Photo means light  Photosynthesis use light energy change their chemical energy store in starch. Photosynthetic organisms is known as photoautotrophs. Photosynthesis is important due to to process food is primary source  on earth  release of oxygen is responsible for the atmosphere. Feature of photosynthesis Physio chemical process Redox process Up hill process Endergonic process. Physicochemical process Light energy is converted into glucose/starch. Light energy is physical form. Starch or Glucose is chemical form. Redox process Light reaction is oxidation process and  dark reaction is reduction process. Light reaction is a splitting of water. Dark reaction is CO2 (carbon dioxide) fixation. Uphill process Carbon dioxide is a weak electron acceptor. Electron move like in upward direction. Endergonic process Energy in which consumption in the form of light. Equation of photosynth

Enzymes classification Enzymes is protein, Enzyme  Increase the rate of reaction Enzymes can be classified into six major classes based on the nature and type of reaction catalyzed as given. Oxidoreductase Transferase Hydrolase Layses Isomerase Liagases. Oxidoreductase enzyme catalysed oxidation or reduction by transfer of hydrogen or electron examples Succinic dehydrogenase. Transferases. Enzyme are involved in transfer of functional group with donor and acceptor. Example are glutamic pyruvic transminase. Hydrolases Enzymes can be  transfer of  water group. Reaction involved hydrolytic cleavage of c-o, c- n ,o- p , and c-s bonds. Example peptidases. Proteolytic enzymes are special class of hydrolases. Layses These enzymes remove the group of  water ammonia  or  carbon dioxide from this substrate to cleave double bond. Example furmarase. Isomerases these are a very heterogeneous group of enzymes that catalyze isomerasation. These include cis-trans ,keto-enol  and adose-ketose interconv

Enzymes Enzymes are biocatalyst. Catalyst means increase the velocity or rate of chemical reaction without itself undergoing any change in overall process. Enzymes is protein that is synthesized in a living cell. Enzymes absence in chemical reaction then  it is slow process of reaction. Enzymes are sensitive to temperature. Also sensitive to PH. All protein is not enzymes. All enzymes are protein. Holoenzyme Completely catalytic active in Enzyme. Holoenzyme is apoenzyme + cofactor. Holoenzyme is active Apoenzyme is inactive Cofactor is inactive. Cofactor Non proteins component of the enzyme. Cofactor can be classified into three groups Coenzyme prosthetic group and  metals ions.

Protein Protein are polymer of amino acid. Protein have one amino group and one carboxylic acid. Protein are three dimensional structure. Protein involves peptide bond. RNA translation protein is form. Alpha carbon are bonded by four group are R group Amino group Carboxyl group Hydrogen. Protein of structure divided into four levels of organisation. Primary structure  secondary structure  tertiary structure  quaternary structure Primary structure primary structure of protein refers to the sequence of amino amino acid in the polypeptide chain . Primary structure is held together by covalent bonds and such as peptide bonds which are made during the process of protein biosynthesis or translation.  two ends polypeptide chain referred to as carboxyl terminals and amino terminus based on the nature of free group. Secondary structure polypeptide by twisting for folding is referred to as secondary structure.  amino acids located close to each other in their sequence mos

Extension efforts in pre independence program Sriniketan project  Gurgaon experiment  sevagram Marthandam project  firka development project Sriniketan project In 1908 Shri Rabindranath Tagore under his scheme of rural development work started youth organisation in the village of his zamindar. Objective  to create real interest in people for rural welfare work To study rural problem and translate into action  to help villages develop their resources To improve village sanitation Method to achieve objective Creating a spirit of self help Developing village leadership Organising village scorts called BratiBalika. Gurgaon experiment. rural upliftment on a mass scale was first started by Mr F I Brayne commissioner in the Gurgaon district of Punjab in 1920. Objective To increase agriculture production to stop wastage of money on social and religious function To improve health standard of people To organise welfare programme. Sevagram. Started by MK Gandhi in 1921 in sevagram Gujara Principa

Extension education process Extension education take palace as a process . education starts with study of present situation and identification of problems.  based on the problems identified solution are found out and objective are formulated. Extension education process was developed by Dr .j paul leagans . Extension work follow the same path The first phase is analysis of the situation.  The second phase is deciding upon objective. The third phase is teaching The fourth phase in evaluation of teaching The fifth phase is reconsideration Function of extension Change in knowledge.  change in skills  change in attitude  change in understanding  change in goal  change in action  change in confidence. Principle of extension. principle of cultural difference  grassroot principal  principal of indigenous knowledge  principal of interest and needs  principle of learning by doing  principle of participation  family principal  principal of leadership  principles adaptability  princip

Demand quantity of a given commodities or service which consumer would buy  in one market in a given period of time at various prices of related goods. Three main characteristic of demand in economics Willingness and ability to pay  demand is always at price  demand is always per unit of time. Kinds of demand  there are three types of demand Price demand  income demand  cross demand Price demand various quantities of a commodity or service that a consumer would purchase at a given time in a market at various hypothetical prices  example income, test and price of interrelated goods remain constant. Income demand  quantities of a good or service which would be purchased by a consumer at various level of income .example of goods or service as well as price of interrelated goods, test and desire of a consumer do not change. Cross demand  quantities of a good or service which would be  purchased with reference to change is price not of the good but of the inter relat

Want meaning characteristics classification and importance Pant is that desire which is backed by the ability and willingness to satisfy it. Want and desire are used in same sense. Desire is conscious longing of a thing. There are three essentials of a want. Desire of an article  abilities Satisfy it  willingness to use the means for purpose of that article. Characteristic of wants they are unlimited  they recur a given want can be satisfied  they are complementary  they are competitive  they have alternative means. Effective desires and ineffective desires Effective desires desire which proved effective that is which are satisfied . A desire is called want  . It is also known as demand. Ineffective desires desire which do not prove effective that is which cannot be Satisfied . person concerned either lack the  means of satisfying them Types of want. Wants vary in intensity or urgency. Wants which are most urgent are known as necessaries.   those whi

Goods and services ,utility ,value , and price anything that satisfy human wants is called goods. goods are tangible and material outcome of production . example food grains, pulses ,and oilseeds ,machinery implements ,seeds,fertilizer and clothes. Services service is any act or performance that one party can offer to another that is intangible and does not result in ownership.  there are intangible nonmaterials inseparable ,variable and perishable   example doctors ,teachers lawyers engineers labours etc. Utility Wants satisfying power of ccommodity is called utility. Consumer exhibit their desire to process a good and or service. Utility classify into different kinds form utility  palace utility  time utility  knowledge utility  service utilit  possession utility Form utility  created by changing form of a good example rice from paddy and flour from bread furniture from wood. Palace utility utility created by the removal of an article f

Wealth Wealth means anything which has value. Wealth is synonymous with economic goods. Wealth convey an idea of prospective and abundance. Characteristic of wealth it should be possess utility  it must be scarce  it must be transferred it must be external to person. Relation between money and wealth money is a form of wealth . all money is wealth but all wealth is not money. Relation between income and wealth income is different from wealth  Wealth yield  income. Types of wealth individual wealth  social wealth  representative wealth  National wealth  Cosmopolitan wealth  negative wealth. Individual wealth consists of all tangible and intangible  of individuals. Example land, bonds, deposits. Social wealth Wealth which is collectively used by all people in a nation. Example railways ,public park ,Government College. Etc. Representative wealth Wealth in the form of title deeds National wealth aggregate of all individual wealth and social wealth of th

Major economic problems the economic problems consists in making decisions regarding ENDS to be  purchase and the goods to be produced and the MEANS to be used for the achievement of Certain ends. What to produce  how to produce  for whom to produce  economical use of resources  problem of full employment  problem of growth Division of Economics the study of Economics can be explain under two approaches viz.,  traditional approach and  modern approach Traditional approach it considered economics as a science of wealth divided it into four division viz  consumption ,production, exchange ,distribution. Consumption Use of wealth to satisfy women wants. Destruction of utility or use of commodities and service to satisfy human wants. Production Creation of utility  Transformation of materials into goods and service. Exchange Transfer of goods from one person to other Distribution Sharing of wealth that is produced.

Agricultural economics The word economics has been derived from the Greek word OIKONOMICAS with OIKOS meaning house old and NOMOS meaning management. it is understand that the beginning was made by Greek philosopher Aristotle in his book economica focus that the field of economics deal with household management . Father of economics Adam Smith wrote book his wealth of nation. Adam Smith define economics as an enquiry in to the nature and cause of the wealth of nation. J S MiIL define economics  the practical science of production and distribution of wealth. JB says Economics is the science which treats the wealth. JE carinas Economics deal with phenomena of wealth. F A. Walker Economics is that body of knowledge which relates to wealth. J.M. Keynes he define economics as a study of administration of scarebresource and of the determinant of employment and income. ALFRED MARSHALL HE DEFINE ECONOMICS AS "ECONOMICS IS THE STUDY OF MANKIND IN ORDINARY BUSINESS O